PALLAVA DYNASTY (275 CE–897 CE)
Early Pallava dynasty gains prominence around 275 CE after the fall of the Satavahana dynasty. Pallava king Simhavishnu dethrones Kalabhra rulers around 575 CE and establishes the medieval Pallava Empire in modern-day Kanchipuram by 600 CE. His son Mahendravarman I and grandson Narasimhavarman I preach Shaivism and patronage the extraordinary group of monuments in Mahabalipuram.
Varaha Avatar rescuing Bhumi Devi (Mother Earth) – 7th – 8th Century CE, Mahabalipuram, Pallava Kings. While the length of keezhadai/antariya grew longer and takes the form of sari like drape in other parts of India by the early Medieval period, people living in Dravidian kingdoms continued to wear minimal short clothes. The panels from the group of monuments at Mahabalipuram from the 7th-8th century Pallava empire depict people in short loin cloth (keezhudai) tied with a waistband, meladai, elaborate headgears, garlands, and extensive jewellery.
CLOTHING OF PALLAVAS
The Satvahana influences in Pallavan costumes are evident in the breast-band of central India which finds its way into medieval Tamil Nadu – known as Vambu, Vaar or Kachchu in Thamizh. Breast bands of some female figurines even feature halters. The male royal figurines of Pallavan era also depict 2-piece clothing keeladai (loincloth draped on lower body) and meladai (draped on upper body). The keeladai worn by elite castes was called sirradai. The ascetics wore an yellow robe called tuvar adai.
The single piece of garment draped over both upper & lower body – the sari, which gains prominence during Kushan rule in north India, finds no reference in either of Pallavan arts or the Sangam works. It is also noteworthy that from the Mauryan sculptures of Sanchi and Barhut to the Satvahana arts of Amaravati and Ajanta, it is only women who are decked with anklets. This clothing trend is observed in early Pallava arts; however, Pallavan arts of Rajasimhan at Kailasanatha temple, Kanchi and the Shore temple depict even men wearing leg ornaments.
FACIAL HAIR – Warriors sported a moustache, rishis pointed beards, but kings and gods are clean-shaven.
MAKEUP – Men and women applied three colours to their body – sandal-wood paste, chunnam and red kunkum, and eye-lids with anjanam.
HEADGEARS & CROWNS – Krita Makuta is a tall cylindrical crown, mostly worn by Vishnu and royal figurines. Jata Makuta is a distinctive hair-style resembling the crown depicted on Sivan. Karanda makuta is the most popularly worn headgear by common men and women in the form of a cone with tassels and other decorations.
GARLANDS – Aathondai flower (Capparis zeylanica) was used by the Pallava kings for garlands. Nandikalambakam also refers to garlands being worn on the crown. However, the flowers in the stone sculptures of Pallavan arts aren’t depicted with the same clarity as in the bronze figurines of succeeding Chozha period.
NECKLACE – Necklaces were of gold and precious stones and often worn without pendants by both men and women. Pendants (thooku) were worn by females. Veera sangili or Swarnakshaka refers to pearl-strings which go over both shoulders and are tied in the middle, forming an ‘ X ‘ in the front and back. Yagnopavita denotes a variety of ornaments which are worn over the left shoulder. Yagnopavita of different kinds with clasps, long ones going down to the leg, double and triple strands meeting at the clasp is found in Pallavan figurines at Mahabalipuram.
BELTS & WAISTBANDS – A men’s ornamental belt called the udhara bhanda is worn just above the stomach. A waist belt (arai naan or kati sutra) knotted in front with a bow is worn by people of every gender.
EARRINGS – Ear-ornaments were a big trend for Pallavan people. In the ears, they wore makara kundala (makara kuzhai in Thamizh) shaped like a fish or a crocodile, and patra kundala (thodu or olai in Thamizh) a circular ornament which was inserted in the lobes. Precious stones and gold were used to make the ear-ornaments, but it was also common to use palm leaf, clay and shell for making the different kinds of patra kundala. Women appear with the makara kundala on the left ear and patra kundala on the right and vice versa.
ARMBANDS & BANGLES – In the Pallava period, the bangles were made not only in gold (thodi) but also from sea-shells (valai). A simple circular band worn on the upper arm is called thol valai. The second kind is a cork-screw-shaped ornament which goes around the arm twice or thrice and is the most common arm-band in Mahabalipuram. The third is an elaborate ornament called thekeyura which is set with gems, and some of these keyuras have an extraordinary cross-like pattern around a circle.
ANKLETS – Hollow anklets (silambu) worn by women were made of gold with loose pearls inside to produce a characteristic sound. Nandikalambakkam mentions the kazhal, a leg ornament worn by king Nandivarman.
Rings on fingers and toes as well as nose-rings are not depicted in Pallavan arts and neither are any ornaments on thighs.
EARLY CHALUKYAS (543 CE – 753 CE)
Early Chalukyas were initially subordinate to Kadambas and Pulakeshin I establishes the first sovereign Chalukya dynasty in 543 CE. The reign of the Chalukyas saw the arrival of Kannada as the predominant language of inscriptions along with Sanskrit in Deccan.
CLOTHING IN MEDIEVAL KERALA
Cheras reestablish their political authority in Kerala region under the leadership of Kulasekhara Varman by 9th century CE. All the kings of the second Chera empire adopted the official title Kulasekhara Perumal, originating from the founder of the dynasty. Hence, the second Cheras are also known as Kulashekaras or Perumals. The revival of Chera power between the 9th and 10th centuries is remarked as the golden period of Kerala history. Kulashekara kings were great patrons of the arts, literature and science. Under the patronage of Perumals, Kerala even gets its own distinct writing script – Manipravalam, which was used to write an admixture of Proto Thamizh-Malayalam language and Classical Sanskrit. Many religions including Jainism, Buddhism, Christianity, Islam and Brahminism co-existed peacefully in Kulashekaras kingdom. The medieval Chera Empire was divided into provinces under the rule of Nair Chieftains, with each province comprising a number of Dhesams under the control of local chieftains. There were two kinds of chieftainships: hereditary – like the governors of Kollanatu, Venatu, Eralanatu, and Valluvanatu; and nominated like the chieftains of Ramavajanatu, Nanrulainatu and Netumpuraiyumatu.
Chera kingdom, chieftaincies, and Chozha mandalams c. 11th century
Mundu, a plain white rectangular cloth wrapped around the waist was the most common attire worn by every gender in medieval Kerala. This plain white dress was worn by all, regardless of their caste, however, Namboothiri Brahmins and rulers distinguished themselves in mundu with kasavu zari. Long traditional mundu were twisted and used as Uthareeyams in the form of a large Yajnopaveetham by Namboothiri men. Namboothiri males also wore Kapunim tied around the waist, passed between the thighs and tucked in at the front and back, with pleated front. The melmundu was a fabric worn over shoulders and also indicated caste status. For example, in the presence of an upper caste person, the lower caste men should keep their melmundu either around the waist and tucked under armpits. The upper caste sections wore rich silks and very fine semi transparent cotton clothes. Namboothiri men also wore wooden sandals called methiyyadi. Sporting a Kaduma, a tuft/lock of hair which was knotted and kept in different styles, was mandatory for Namboothirs. Kaduma was popular even among other social sections including the Malabar Christians.
The Namboothiri women wore Pudava around the waist usually measuring up to 7 feet in length and 2 feet in breadth. The Pudava was also draped in Kapunim style. The practice of covering the upper body didn’t gain prominence in Kerala until the influx of Christianity and Islam. Women wore mulakacha, a fitted bodice which was knotted from behind. By the late medieval period, it was trendy for upper caste women to wear Neriyathum, a shawl-like garment draped around the torso. This act of wearing clothes on the upper body was prohibited for women lower in caste hierarchy and was interpreted with disrespect towards the dominant castes. Nair men and women wore a mundu and did not cover their chest. Nair women adorned themselves with ornaments and flowers. Widows, however, were prohibited from wearing ornaments.
Women belonging to marginalised castes mostly wore Ottamundu – a short piece of cloth which was draped on the lower body. Thorthu was towel wrapped and tied around their waist commonly by people from lower caste communities. Agriculture labourers also wore Thoruthu as Thalekettu (turban). Ezhavas, Pulayas and Parayans wore a short loincloth called Konakam. Outcastes like Thanda Pulaya and Nayadi continued to wear leaves and vegetation as garments.
RASHTRAKUTAS (753 CE – 982 CE)
The costumes of Rashtrakutas continued to follow the trends of Pallavas and early Chalukyas. However, inscriptions from the period suggest that only upper-caste people could wear turbans, and the practice trickled down to the lower caste sections much later in the region.
MEDIEVAL CHOZHAS (848 CE–1279 CE)
Raja Raja Chozha I of Chozha dynasty establishes one of the mightiest empires of India controlling the areas stretching from Sri Lanka in the south to Kalinga in the north.
TEXTILES OF MEDIEVAL CHOZHASAided by flourishing trade and pan-continental influence, the weaving community (Kaikkolar) of Chozha kingdom produced various types of clothes for the requirements of the temples, royal households and also for common people. The name Kaikkolar was a combination of Kai (hand) and Kol (loom shuttle). King Raja Raja I also invited Saliya weavers from Andhra who taught fine-weaving techniques to local Kaikkolars. The Saliga/Saliyar weavers settled in various parts of Tanjore, Tirunelveli, Kanchipuram, Coimbatore, and North Arcot. The Saliyans wore poonool (sacred thread), and engage Brahman purohits. Saliyanagarattar were textile merchants mostly concentrated around Kanchipuram region. Weavers sold their textiles in local trade-fair known as Sandhai.
Padaliputram (Poddaalapura), Chirapalli, Nagapatnam, Chozhapatnam and Thondaimandalam were important centres of textile production. Madurai was a centre of cotton production and weaving. Chozha textiles were exported to the Arabian ports like Armuz and Aden in west and Malaya-Java in east. Textile patterns were circular, dots, lines and checks. Literature of this period mentions cotton and silk textiles in white, green, and reddish colour.
Pumpattu (flower pattern silk), Pachchilai pattu (green silk), Konkala pattu (named after the region of weaving – Konkala, Telangana), Pulivur pattu (named after the region of weaving – Puliyur, Karur), Patola pattu (double-ikkat silk) and Venpattu (white silk) were different types of silk produced in this period. Pumpattu, Pachchilai pattu, Konkala pattu, and Ven pattu were different types of silk produced during the period of Vikrama Chozha. Pachchilai pattu, Puliyur pattu, & Patola pattu were popularly worn by shepherd community. Fabrics woven with gold threads for auspicious occasions were called ponnadai. While silks mostly adorned the royals, cotton weaves remained popular among the commoners as pointed out by 13th-century Chinese writer named Chau-Ju-Jua. Sella (Muslin) and Vichithra (Chintz) were the other mainly woven fabrics in this period.
Periya Puranam accounts that women wore attractive cottons and silks. Thugil aruvai, thuni (cloth), thundu (towel/gamcha), were the names of the cotton cloth, whereas silk cloth was referred to as Pattadai (silk cloth), Ponnaram (golden brocade silk), and Manikilaradai. Thugil and Kalingam were perhaps imported clothes. Thugil was a high-quality cotton which was fine in texture. Kalingam was a dyed cloth and black in colour. Young women wore red silks upon attaining puberty.
CLOTHING OF MEDIEVAL CHOZHAS
The emergence of pudavai, a predecessor of the contemporary sari, can be noted as the most significant change in the silhouettes of Chozha costumes from that of Pallavas. Earliest pudavai is worn around the waist with the chest bared. 10th-century text Jeevaga Chinthamani states that pudavai was folded with pleats in front. The length of the earliest pudavai is unknown. Surrupudavai and Niravadi pudavai are the two variations of the costume in the reign of Kulottunga Chozha (1070-1122 AD). Niravadi pudavai is three-yards in length. Cotton pudavais were referred to as Parutti Pudavai. Keeladai (lower garment) and meladai (upper drape) remained the primary gender-fluid garments. Meladai was also known as Uttarivam in this period. Keeldai was also draped in Kachcham style. Unlike the short lower garments worn in the Pallava period, the Chozha figurines consistently feature keeladai reaching the calf length or ankles. Women also wore Kachchu (breast covering) which popular among the urban dwellers and royals.
Italian traveller Marco-polo who visited south India in the beginning of the 14th Century AD stated “It is not possible to find a tailor anywhere in the country”. However, a 11th-century inscription refers to the presence of tailors in medieval Thanjavur. Tailors were referred to tunnakkarar (cloth-person) in the era of medieval Chozhas. The tailors stitched kachchu (breast-covering) which was intricately embellished and decorative. Murals from the reign of Raja Raja Chozha I (10th century) depict court attendants wearing frock like coats with full sleeves. Fresco paints in Brahadeeshwarar temple, Thanjavur, also feature women decked in heavy jewellery complete with hair-do in the form of a dhammilla. Women also appear to have worn thalaiyudai (headgear) during occasions.
Devadasis wore a thin upper-cloth across the chest and short lower garment fastened by araikachchu (hip-belt).
JEWELLERY OF MEDIEVAL CHOZHAS
Most aspects of the Pallavan jewellery are continued to be worn in the Chozha period. Most of these ornaments were gender-fluid. The mekalai (girdle) worn by Chozha figures are far more elaborate and detailed than Pallavas. Chozha figurines also feature necklaces that are worn closer to the neck than in Pallava figurines. Heavy lockets encrusted with precious stones like ruby and emerald was particularly worn by the royals. Pearl fishing was an important aspect of Chozha trade and pearl ornaments were popularly worn in this period. Pearl necklace usually with 7, 5, or 3 strands was called Saptasari, Panchasari or Trisari respectively. Ekevalli is a single strand bejewelled chain made out of pearls, corals, lapis lazuli and sapphires. Udhrabandha was a waistband or belly used around the torso above the navel but below the breasts. Chudamani is a head ornament worn at the parting of the hair in the centre of the head. Chuttu is a disc-like or circular shaped ornament, suspended from the parting of the hair by means of a small chain usually laid on the parting line on the head. Chuttu was worn by women of all classes including princess, court attendants and temple dancing girls. Thodu (earrings) came in several shapes including circular-ring, circular disc, spiral, fish shape and large gemstone encrusted. Long & stretched ear-lobes piercing was in fashion. Nose ornaments (absent in Pallava art) emerges as a big trend for every sex as indicated in the Inscriptions from Thanjavur during the reign of Devaraya II. Valayal (bangle) made of gold was known as Katakam. The arm band worn in Chozha period, known as paampusural features a cobra head at the upper end. Modhiram translates to ring worn on the fingers and the toe ring was called Thirukkal modhiram; the latter was particularly popular among married women. Married women also wore Thali, a pendant worn by married ladies as a sacred symbol of their being married women. Thilakam or pottu (bindhi) was worn on the forehead by both married and unmarried women. Young girls popularly styled their hair in two or more plaits possibly even five. Married women were more likely to tie their hair in coiffure or Kondai in Thamizh. In the Chozha era, the art of preparation and use of cosmetics was one among the 64 arts and women of this period used the make-up box (Toilet Box) which comprised pastes, washes and unguents. Natural perfumes and different kinds of herbal juice were used to decorate their hands, feet, fingers and toes. Collyrium was applied to eyelids and eyebrows with the brush called Kol. People of medieval Chozha kingdom also applied sandal and turmeric paste on their bodies – a tradition that has origin in the post-Sangam period and it continues to be in use even today.
The outcastes or untouchables and tribal people in medieval Chozha period wore animal skins, dried leaves, and peacock feathers as clothes.
BASAVANNA & LINGAYATISM
Basavanna was an influential Lingayat figure who promoted personalised direct worship of Shiva and rejected ritual-centric worship. Under the influence of saint Basavanna, a new religious movement emerges in Karnataka – Veerashaivim or later known as Lingayatism. Lingayatism has roots in Thamizh Nayanar Shaivism and emphasised personal religious experience over text-based dogmatism.
HOYSALA EMPIRE (1026 CE – 1343 CE)
The constant war between Chozhas and Western Chalukyas leads to weakening of both dynasties, marking the rise of the Hoysala Empire in Karnataka. Hoysalas governed most of Karnataka, minor parts of Tamil Nadu and parts of western Andhra Pradesh and Telangana between the 11th and the 14th centuries.
2ND PANDYAN EMPIRE (1212 CE – 1345 CE)
Pandyas reestablish their territorial authority in the medieval period by the 13th century. The Parava community was associated with pearl fishing and pearl was considered as an auspicious ornament. Muthu maalai or pearl necklace featuring 104 pearls arranged on a silk string was worn by Pandya royals.
The fashion trends of medieval Pandya kingdom reflected the costume culture as found in imperial Chozha kingdom. Clothing was largely unstitched; however, jewellery was elaborate and exquisite. The length of pudavai worn by women covered the legs till ankles. Pudavai featured elaborate pleats and drapery. Pudavai continued to remain a garment that covered only the waist and not the upper-body. However, breast-bands or Kachchu are frequently depicted in medieval Pandyan arts.
KAKATIYA DYNASTY (1163 CE – 1323 CE)
A 10th-century inscription of the Vengi Chalukyas suggests that early Kakatiyas served as military generals to Rashtrakutas. Kakatiyas were an indigenous Andhra power who established their sovereign rule in Andhra region in 1163 CE and ruled till the first quarter of the 14th century. One of the prominent features of Kakatiya rule was the emergence of Shudras as a political elite and the other social groups accepted the superiority of Kakatiyas as rulers.
A panel depicting costumes in Kakatiya kingdom, Warangal Fort, 12th century CE
People in medieval Andhra continued to wear unstitched garments and sewing didn’t gain popularity. However, women did wear bodice known as kolaka or kanchuka. Clothes were mainly made of cotton and silk. Turbans were common and draped in a variety of styles. Ornaments made of gold, silver and other precious stones were popular among every gender. Sandalwood paste was the most common cosmetic followed by natural perfumes. Flowers were popularly used to decorate the hair. Eye-salva or anjana made of black antimong powder was not only worn to enhance beauty but for superstitious reasons too.
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Also Read: Clothing in Ancient India